» The whole of space is filled with electrons and flying electric ions of all kinds. We have assumed that each stellar system in evolution throws off electric corpuscles into space. It does not seem unreasonable therefore to think that the greater part of the material masses in the universe is found, not in the solar systems or nebulae, but in "empty" space. «Kristian Birkeland — 1913
The Sun and all the planets, including Earth, carry massive electrical currents, and the electromagnetic waves they emit penetrate Earth's magnetic field and biosphere in the form of electrical storms. Earth's magnetosphere is highly sensitive to these waves, and each planet has a different effect on it. While we know that the planets directly emit electromagnetic radiation, we do not fully understand how effective their influence is. As the planets emit electromagnetic energy in all directions, they affect each other as well as the Sun. The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the planets impacts the inner part of the Sun, contributing to the formation of sunspots. Some combinations of planetary gravitational forces also influence sunspots on the Sun's surface and can trigger solar flares.
In 2007, NASA scientist Ching-Cheh Hung published an article titled Apparent Relations Between Solar Activity and Solar Tides Caused by the Planets, in which he proposed that sunspot cycles were influenced by changes in the tidal forces exerted by the planets. As evidence, he noted that 28 out of 35 observed inflations occurred when one or more planets causing dominant tidal waves (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Jupiter) were either in close proximity (<10°) or in opposition (180°) to the Sun. Hung also emphasized that, over the past 300 years, the alignment cycles of Venus, Earth, and Jupiter closely mirrored the Schwabe sunspot cycle of approximately 11 years.
Solar Energy Affects Financial Markets
Dr. Al Larson, a leading pioneer in astro-finance, explains: The planets, as they orbit the Sun, create a stirring effect in the mass of gases that make up the Sun. Each planet slightly pulls on the part of the Sun nearest to it, distorting the shape of the mass. These distortions cause movements in the gases, which in turn affect the amount of radiation emitted by the Sun. This radiation, in various forms, travels from the Sun to the planets. One form, the particles that make up the solar wind, travel in paths that are influenced by the planets. This variation in solar radiation causes a variety of changes in Earth's environment, including heating effects, electromagnetic effects, and various weather changes. These environmental changes, in turn, influence human behavior, which can be most readily detected in data reflecting mass behavior, such as financial markets.
- The Sun emits radiation that varies by about 2%. These variations are caused by the tidal forces exerted by the revolving planets on the gases in the Sun. These tidal forces create vortexes on the Sun's surface, leading to solar flares, coronal holes, and magnetic storms. The energy changes resulting from these phenomena are carried to Earth by an ionized stream of particles known as the Solar Wind.
- When the Solar Wind reaches Earth, it is deflected around the planet by Earth's magnetic field, creating a magnetosphere. At the poles, ionized particles can penetrate Earth's atmosphere. Changes in solar radiation lead to fluctuations in the voltage within the ionosphere.
- This, in turn, causes changes in the electrical currents flowing through humans on Earth. These emotional swings account for approximately 40% of price movement.
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| Al Larson - Astrophysics & Chaos [Mar 30, 1999] |
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| Al Larson - Astrophysics & Chaos [Sep 30, 1999] |
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| Al Larson - Astrophysics & Chaos [March 20, 2001] |
Plasma is overwhelmingly the dominant constituent of the universe as a whole. Yet, most people are ignorant of plasmas. In daily life on the surface of planet Earth, perhaps the plasma to which people are most commonly exposed is the one that produces the cool, efficient glow from fluorescent lights. Neither solid, nor liquid, nor gas, plasma most closely resembles the latter; but unlike gases, whose components are electrically neutral, plasma is composed of the building blocks of all matter: electrically charged particles at high energy.
Plasma is so energetic, or "hot," that in space it consists solely of ions and electrons. It is only when plasma is cooled that atoms or molecules, which are predominant in forming gases, liquids, and solids that we are accustomed to on Earth, can form. So, in space, plasma remains electrically charged. Thus, plasmas carry electric currents and are more influenced by electromagnetic forces than by gravitational forces. Outside Earth's atmosphere, the dominant form of matter is plasma, and "empty" space has been found to be quite "alive" with a constant flow of plasma.
Plasma is by far the most common form of matter known. Plasma in the stars and in the tenuous space between them makes up over 99% of the visible universe and perhaps most of that which is not visible. On Earth, we live upon an island of "ordinary" matter. The different states of matter found on Earth are solid, liquid, and gas. We have learned to work, play, and rest using these states of matter. Sir William Crookes, an English physicist, identified another, more fundamental state of matter in 1879. In 1929, Nobel Laureate Irving Langmuir gave this state a name: plasma. He borrowed the term from medical science because the matter with which he worked resembled life itself. It formed cells through bifurcation and often acted in a complicated and unpredictable manner. Plasma is defined as an assemblage of charged particles—electrons and ions—that react collectively to forces exerted by electric and magnetic fields.
Given its nature, the plasma state is characterized by a complexity that vastly exceeds that exhibited in the solid, liquid, and gaseous states. Correspondingly, the study of the physical and, especially, the electrodynamical properties of plasma forms one of the most far-ranging and difficult research areas in physics today. From spiral galaxies to controlled fusion, this little-known state of matter—the fundamental state—is proving to be of ever greater significance in explaining the dynamics of the universe and in harnessing the material world for the greatest technological results.
Plasma is so energetic, or "hot," that in space it consists solely of ions and electrons. It is only when plasma is cooled that atoms or molecules, which are predominant in forming gases, liquids, and solids that we are accustomed to on Earth, can form. So, in space, plasma remains electrically charged. Thus, plasmas carry electric currents and are more influenced by electromagnetic forces than by gravitational forces. Outside Earth's atmosphere, the dominant form of matter is plasma, and "empty" space has been found to be quite "alive" with a constant flow of plasma.
Plasma is by far the most common form of matter known. Plasma in the stars and in the tenuous space between them makes up over 99% of the visible universe and perhaps most of that which is not visible. On Earth, we live upon an island of "ordinary" matter. The different states of matter found on Earth are solid, liquid, and gas. We have learned to work, play, and rest using these states of matter. Sir William Crookes, an English physicist, identified another, more fundamental state of matter in 1879. In 1929, Nobel Laureate Irving Langmuir gave this state a name: plasma. He borrowed the term from medical science because the matter with which he worked resembled life itself. It formed cells through bifurcation and often acted in a complicated and unpredictable manner. Plasma is defined as an assemblage of charged particles—electrons and ions—that react collectively to forces exerted by electric and magnetic fields.
Given its nature, the plasma state is characterized by a complexity that vastly exceeds that exhibited in the solid, liquid, and gaseous states. Correspondingly, the study of the physical and, especially, the electrodynamical properties of plasma forms one of the most far-ranging and difficult research areas in physics today. From spiral galaxies to controlled fusion, this little-known state of matter—the fundamental state—is proving to be of ever greater significance in explaining the dynamics of the universe and in harnessing the material world for the greatest technological results.
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| Violent activity on the sun, such as a solar flare, can produce a monster superstorm that releases plasma into the solar wind. Large flares often result in an ejection of material from the solar corona, called a coronal mass ejection (CME). A CME can spew billions of tons of plasma away from the sun and toward Earth at speeds faster than 1.5 million mph. The plasma affects Earth and the vicinity surrounding Earth dominated by its magnetic field, called the magnetosphere. As plasma from a superstorm interacts with Earth’s magnetosphere, it can trigger spectacular displays of the Northern Lights, called auroras, interfere with communications between satellites and airplanes traveling near the North Pole, and interrupt global positioning systems and our power grid. |
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| This image is a summary of the main features of the plasmasphere: the plasmapause, main body of the plasmasphere, dusk-bulge region and detached plasma regions outside the main body of the plasmasphere. The plasmasphere is a donut-shaped region inside the Earth's magnetosphere. It is basically an extension of the ionosphere, or the topmost part of the Earth's atmosphere. The magnetic field lines of the Earth capture plasma that flows up from the ionosphere, so that there is a plasma build-up. Scientists call that plasma build-up the plasmasphere. The plasmasphere is composed mostly of hydrogen ions. The base of the plasmasphere, which is the same as the top of the ionosphere, is about 1000 kilometers from the Earth's surface. The temperature in the plasmasphere is generally between 6,000K and 35,100K. |
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| Dual bands of ultraviolet light mark streams of plasma circling Earth's equator. |
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| Playing the Field: Geomagnetic Storms and the Stock Market, a study of the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta, notes the following: Unusually high levels of geomagnetic activity have a
negative, statistically and economically significant effect on the
following week’s stock returns for all US stock market indices. When a solar flare or CME happens, it can take up to 2 days to impact
the earth. Therefore, two days after a large solar flare we should see
a drop in the stock market values for that day. |
Solar-Terrestial
Dynamics
We rely on the Sun's energy to live on Earth, and the aurora relies on the Sun's energy to drive the currents that create the aurora. The Sun is our nearest star. Like all stars, it is a hot ball of gas, primarily composed of hydrogen. The Sun is so hot that most of its gas is actually plasma, the fourth state of matter. The first state is solid, the coldest state of matter. As we heat a solid, it becomes a liquid, the second state of matter. As we heat a liquid, it turns into a gas, the third state of matter. As we heat the gas, atoms break apart into charged particles, turning the gas into plasma.
The Sun's plasma is so hot that the most energetic charged particles can escape its gravity and fly out into space. We call this plasma the solar wind, as it blows away from the Sun and past the planets, interacting with their magnetic fields and/or atmospheres. Along with the solar wind comes the Sun's magnetic field, which extends from the Sun out past Pluto and Neptune.
The Sun's plasma is so hot that the most energetic charged particles can escape its gravity and fly out into space. We call this plasma the solar wind, as it blows away from the Sun and past the planets, interacting with their magnetic fields and/or atmospheres. Along with the solar wind comes the Sun's magnetic field, which extends from the Sun out past Pluto and Neptune.
The shape of Earth's magnetosphere is created by the interaction between the solar wind and Earth's intrinsic magnetic field. Charged particles and magnetic fields influence each other. When the solar wind, which is made up of charged particles, blows past Earth's magnetosphere, the shape of the magnetic field changes from the dipole magnetic field—shown on Earth's Magnetosphere page—to a plasma-swept magnetosphere that resembles hair blown in the wind. This interaction between the Sun's plasma wind and Earth's magnetosphere is known as the Sun-Earth Connection. The side of the magnetosphere facing the Sun and being hit by the solar wind is called the "dayside magnetosphere." The part of the magnetosphere that stretches back, as though streaming with the solar wind, is called the magnetotail.
The Sun constantly emits both particles and light. It takes light eight minutes to reach Earth, but most of the time, the particles take about three days to make the journey from the Sun to Earth. The everyday interaction between the solar wind and Earth's magnetic field causes currents to flow between Earth's upper atmosphere and the magnetosphere, primarily the magnetotail. Just as currents flow through a neon light to illuminate the gas, the currents flowing between the magnetotail and the upper atmosphere light up Earth's gases, causing the aurora.
The light from the aurora is caused by charged particles (mostly electrons) that come from inside the magnetosphere and then speed up to very high speeds as they travel along magnetic field lines into the upper atmosphere. As they collide with the gas, they excite the atoms and molecules, which emit light when they relax from their excited state. Sometimes the magnetosphere stores more energy than it can release slowly, and something inside the magnetotail 'breaks,' generating waves and currents that trigger the beautiful and mysterious dancing aurora.
Moon and Magnetotail
During the crossing, the Moon passes through a gigantic plasma sheet of hot, charged particles trapped in the tail. The lightest and most mobile of these particles, electrons, pepper the Moon's surface and give it a negative charge.
On the Moon's dayside, this effect is partially counteracted by sunlight: UV photons knock electrons off the surface, keeping the build-up of charge at relatively low levels. But on the nightside, in the cold lunar dark, electrons accumulate, and voltages can climb to hundreds or even thousands of volts.
On the Moon's dayside, this effect is partially counteracted by sunlight: UV photons knock electrons off the surface, keeping the build-up of charge at relatively low levels. But on the nightside, in the cold lunar dark, electrons accumulate, and voltages can climb to hundreds or even thousands of volts.
The best direct evidence comes from NASA's Lunar Prospector spacecraft, which orbited the Moon in 1998-99 and monitored many magnetotail crossings. During some crossings, the spacecraft sensed significant changes in the lunar nightside voltage, jumping from -200 V to -1000 V. It is important to note that the plasma sheet (where all the electrons come from) is a very dynamic structure. The plasma sheet is in a constant state of motion, flapping up and down all the time. So, as the Moon orbits through the magnetotail, the plasma sheet can sweep across it repeatedly. Depending on how dynamic the situation is, the Moon can encounter the plasma sheet multiple times during a single pass through the magnetotail, with encounters lasting anywhere from minutes to hours or even days. As a result, you can imagine how dynamic the charging environment on the Moon is. The Moon can be sitting in a quiet region of the magnetotail and then suddenly have all this hot plasma sweep by, causing the nightside potential to spike to a kilovolt. Then, just as quickly, it drops back again.
The roller coaster of charge would be at its most dizzying during solar and geomagnetic storms. Earth's magnetotail isn't the only source of plasma to charge the Moon. The solar wind can provide charged particles as well; indeed, most of the time, the solar wind is the primary source. But when the Moon enters the magnetotail, the solar wind is pushed back, and the plasma sheet takes over. The plasma sheet is about 10 times hotter than the solar wind, giving it more "punch" when it comes to altering the charge balance on the Moon's surface. Two-million-degree electrons in the plasma sheet race around like crazy, and many of them hit the Moon's surface. Solar wind electrons are relatively cool, at only 140,000 degrees, and fewer of them manage to travel all the way down to the shadowed surface of the Moon's nightside.
The roller coaster of charge would be at its most dizzying during solar and geomagnetic storms. Earth's magnetotail isn't the only source of plasma to charge the Moon. The solar wind can provide charged particles as well; indeed, most of the time, the solar wind is the primary source. But when the Moon enters the magnetotail, the solar wind is pushed back, and the plasma sheet takes over. The plasma sheet is about 10 times hotter than the solar wind, giving it more "punch" when it comes to altering the charge balance on the Moon's surface. Two-million-degree electrons in the plasma sheet race around like crazy, and many of them hit the Moon's surface. Solar wind electrons are relatively cool, at only 140,000 degrees, and fewer of them manage to travel all the way down to the shadowed surface of the Moon's nightside.
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| The first convincing evidence for an ionosphere around the Moon came in the 1970s from the Soviet probes Luna 19 and 22. Circling the Moon at close range, the orbiters sensed a layer of charged material extending a few tens of km above the lunar surface containing as many as 1000 electrons per cubic centimeter—a thousand times more than any theory could explain. Radio astronomers also found hints of the lunar ionosphere when distant radio sources passed behind the Moon’s limb. Small amounts of gas created by radioactive decay seep out of the lunar interior; meteoroids and the solar wind also blast atoms off the Moon’s surface. The resulting shroud of gas is so thin, however, that many researchers refuse to call it an atmosphere, preferring instead the term “exosphere.” The density of the lunar exosphere is about a hundred million billion times less than that of air on Earth—not enough to support an ionosphere as dense as the ones the Luna probes sensed. Plasma from the sun is incident directly on the lunar surface, and atoms from the surface are ejected by the plasma ions to create the Moon’s weak ionosphere (Credit: NASA). |
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| The part of a planet's magnetosphere that is elongated away from the Sun by the solar wind. Earth's magnetosphere extends about 65,000 km on the dayside but more than 10 times further (beyond the Moon's orbit) on the nightside. Jupiter's magnetotail extends beyond the orbit of Saturn (Credit: ESA). |